Human Rights Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Human Rights - Research Paper Example The constitutional right of liberty as an executive power in the UK carries the foundation of offering security and protection of freedom. This is expressed through The National Council for Civil Liberties, specifically which promotes human rights while creating better understanding of the liberties that are required in the UK. The committee that has been created in the UK is based on the Public Bodies Bill, which states that there is a fundamental right of every citizen to have liberty and protection of this liberty. The Bill that has been passed combines this with the fundamental right of every individual to have liberty and equal rights in any given circumstance, specifically which is supposed to comply with human rights standards that are within the UK . The protection of liberty that is now rising in the UK is one which questions the executive powers and the expectations of the new problems within society. The opposing viewpoints which are arising with the Constitutional right, expectations of basic human standards and the creation of the Public Bodies Bill has also created questions of what the limitations of power should be . The main conflict is based on the differences between security and liberty as well as liberty that oppose equality. The security measures which arise often create a sense of protection of human rights that comes from avoiding conflict and creating security measures for better monitoring of different public areas. However, there are many that believe this takes away freedom and liberty, specifically pertaining to privacy and the ability for individuals to have a sense of freedom while in society. The ideology of security is then one which arises because of the belief that executive powers to watch others takes away the sense of liberty and freedom3. The ideology of limited protection because of security and equality within the UK is followed by executive powers which show how protection of liberty becomes conflicting. Currently, the UK has a separation of powers by the powers of the Constitution, executive office forces, executive tools and agreements, legislation which supports different changes and marginalized actions of the legislative and judicial branches of the government. These five separations of powers also create conflicts with the main provisions of liberty and what this means when dividing the power among different sources. The question of balancing power with the different definitions of liberty, combined with the new needs in society, then combine with a sense of imbalance for the protection of liberty4. Even though there are divisions of power and expectations with security and human rights, there are still ways in which the protection of liberty works against the executi ve powers as a general constitutional right in the UK. The Constitutional culture is one of the aspects which continue to protect rights. If there is a high amount of security or different powers that create a different definition of liberty, then one can guarantee Constitutional rights toward the right of liberty5. The main values and principles which are associated with liberty can then be applied. A conflict which arises is based on the

Servant Leadership Reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Servant Leadership Reflection - Essay Example Secondly, servant leadership might lead to the failure of an organization to achieve its goals. Servant leadership focuses on enhancing growth at both organizational and community level, which hinders centralized growth in the firm (Schaap, 2008). Finally, servant leadership can demean the leadership role of the management in the organization. This servant leadership can cause laxity at the workplace because it eliminates the leadership at the workplace (Schaap, 2008). There is comfort working under servant leadership style because it promotes unity in the organization. In addition, servant leadership enables managers to experience the status of the working conditions of their employees. This type of leadership creates a good working atmosphere among the subordinate workers and the managers. In addition, it is essential to enhancing the public relations of the organization and production of quality products. Consequently, I would be comfortable using the system (Hammer, 2012). Today’s global society is characterized by the used of advanced technology in all sectors of an organization. The technology enables individuals to share their views regarding the operations of the company. In addition, the modern global society focuses mainly on the corporate social responsibility, which is achievable through servant leadership (Hammer, 2012). Servant leadership is a real leadership approach in the modern society. It enables organizations to relate effectively with the communities through production of high-quality products and corporate social initiatives. In addition, it creates a platform where employees obtain motivation from the leaders that are essential in enhancing productivity and profitability of the organization (Schaap,

Career Aspirations Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Career Aspirations - Research Proposal Example This is my short-term plan for the next 5 years. An accountant must be very good at numbers, precise, analytical and willing to work in a flexible schedule. There are many occasions wherein one has to render overtime especially when a lot of transactions were made in a single day .It is a must for an accountant to have an over-all knowledge of accounting, finance, budgeting, cost control and the GAAP (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles).It is also important for an accountant to be updated with existing financial regulations on the federal as well as national level. It is important for someone who wants to be an accountant to be very patient in handling details. But aside from the technical work, it would also be good if I have good interpersonal skills since I have to deal with different people inside an organization. I need to do a lot of explaining about finance which is sensitive topic for most people. Moreover, I believe I should be very, very objective. One of my strengths is the ability to persevere under trying conditions. I am a very patient person and this attribute would greatly help me in this career. For one, I have encountered a situation wherein I have to explain procedures that someone must follow. The incident happened when I was then assisting in my relative's small business during summer. They had a small grocery which had long-term customers. One grocer returned a box of milk since the date showed that it has already expired. I calmly explained that I need to keep the box as proof but I can't return her money since I do not have the authority to do so. She was insistent and started cursing me. I called my aunt on the cellphone and informed her of the situation. She immediately ordered me to refund the payment. At the end of the day, it was only then that I realized that I was patient and tactful in handling the old lady. I followed the procedure and asked for advice before I acted on the

Strategic Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Strategic Management - Assignment Example Starbucks purchases Fair Trade coffee. This arrangement helps local farmers by guaranteeing a minimal price of $1.26 per pound of wholesale coffee. It also provides them with technology transfers and access to financial assistance such as short term loans to finance the crops of Coffee. Starbucks believes in the value of implementing wellness programs to help out different stakeholder groups including customers, suppliers, and employees. Starbucks purchased 269 million pounds of coffee in 2010; 84% of its purchases came from C.A.F.E. Practices approved suppliers (Starbucks, 2011). The Starbucks stores are designed to save as much energy as possible through the acquisition of superior technology and innovative processes. Water conservation is another practice that Starbucks Cafe practices. The average American uses more than 6 times more water per year than the average African. The company supports social causes such as world hunger and the AIDS/HIV epidemic. The company refers to its employees as baristas. The baristas are supposed to help the company create the â€Å"Starbucks Experience.† The wastage that Starbucks stores produce is minimized through the implementation of its recycling program. The implementation of the firm’s recycling program is customized per store since it is dependent on the availability of existing recycling programs in the community. # 2--Week 3 Discussion Question 2 A company is constantly in the news due to its dominance of the retail marketplace is Wal-Mart. Wal-Mart is the most successful retail store in the history of the United States. The company creates value by offering products at lower prices than the competition. The firm has a superb supply chain that allows the company to source products at lower costs. The company also uses bulk purchasing to achieve savings. Wal-Mart is the world’s largest employer with over 2.1 million employees worldwide (Walmart, 2011). The competitive advantage the company enjoy s is composed of a variety of factors which include: better customer service, lower prices, superb marketing, size of product offering, and superior locations. The firm offers over one million products to its customers. Wal-Mart is a multinational corporation that is publicly traded in the NYSE that operates in 28 countries. My employer does business in the United States solely. The core strategy used by Wal-Mart of beating the competition in terms of price is not aligned with the strategy the company I work for uses. My employer uses a differentiation strategy to attract customers. The products and services offered by my employer are unique, which is contrary to Wal-Mart’s strategy of offering common household products. An attribute or characteristics that both Wal-Mart and my employer share is a commitment towards customer service. A second characteristic that both companies share is the existence of an e-commerce operation. Wal-Mart has an online store that sell is product s to the entire global customer base. The e-commerce operation my employer uses differs in that the company focuses only on the domestic marketplace. # 3-- Week 3 Discussion Question 3 People eat outside their homes more often when the economy is doing well and their disposable income is higher. During bad economic times upper level restaurants are hurt more than cheap products. The industry leader in the fast food industry, McDonald’s, achieved global sales of $24 billion and $4.94 billion in net income

A good mission and vision state Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

A good mission and vision state - Coursework Example The use of mission statement is wide and is not limited to any type of institution or business concern. Thus, non-profit organizations, educational institutions, private businesses and governments all have their own mission statements that are unique in their own way. Nonetheless, there are certain aspects that make the mission statements of the commercial and non-profit organizations different from each other. An example of such would be the aspect of commercial purpose that is not visible in non-profit organizations. An organization also has to visualize its future position in order to remain competitive in the market and global competition. In this context, a vision statement helps an organization to determine its future vision at the time of its establishment. Thus, it enables the founders of the business or nonprofit organization to develop its goals and strategic policies in accordance with the vision that it has and desires to pursue in the long run. The vision statement can be based on a period of 5 to 20 years, depending upon its mission statement. The purpose of this paper is to identify the 5 criteria for developing an effective mission and vision statement. Also, the paper will discuss the rationale for the 5 criteria to qualify as an integral part of an effective mission and vision statement. At the end, the paper will compare the lists of criteria of mission and vision statement in order to analyze the similarities and the differences between the two. A mission statement can only be effective if it consists of all the basic elements for which it exists. For instance, the purpose of a mission statement is to establish the grounds on which the organization is formed. These grounds determine the nature, industry, target market and future economic and social benefits that the organization is aimed to provide. In order to make a difference and empower the organization with a strong mission, it is important to have an effective

Group Dynamics Paper Essay Example for Free

Group Dynamics Paper Essay A group is the interaction of two or more independent people, usually working together to achieve a goal. This group consists of 12 angry men, put together as a jury. Their goal to decide if the defendant is guilty or not guilty. Since these men did not choose to be put together, and had no prior association with one another before placement into this selected group, various contrasting personalities that both support and clash are working toward this goal of finding the defendant unanimously guilty or not guilty as a final verdict for the court. Such contrasts of personality creates a conflicting atmosphere in the courtroom. Such dynamic interactions are what makes the group development interesting. Group Development Problems Throughout the movie a group development occurs where jurors question their vote due to the persuasion of other group members as new ways of looking at the facts or emotions of the case are analyzed amongst the group or by inner, silent thinking of the individual jurors. Group development is the changes that occur in the group from first meeting to coming up with an unanimous verdict (the conclusion). Much emotion and development of thinking occurs as time proceeds and the jurors individual thinking is challenged. This is the development of what will create a final, more thought out decision of the group. Character Roles Roles are the titles that distinguish members of a group from one another. All members of this group are jury members. Although each jury member has an equal role not all jury members are created equal. This inequality is based on characters perceptions and attraction(likes and dislikes) for other each other due to the other characters personality. An example is that the meek, quiet guy is disliked because he seems nervous, lacking the assertiveness the group sees as a norm of how jury members should be. So jury members see him as an insignificant jury member due to his personality. Roles come into the film such as the designated foreman (jury member 1) specifically. Based on characterization, you can label personalities such as the meek, the old man, the baseball fanatic, etc. This gives a name to who the individual is. This description is apart from the goals of the group, but should be considered because these personalities are influential to how characters choose to vote. The meek man is easily persuaded. The old man is calm and logical and the baseball fanatic wants to just get out of there because there is a baseball game. Further than we can expand on the personalities of characters by dividing similar groups into the blue collar jurors vs. white color jurors. The white collar group tend to be more analytic about their decisions; whereas, the blue collar workers tend to be more argumentative with a lack of analysis on the subject matter. These characters we see have motives and backgrounds that will influence their arguments for the vote of guilty or not guilty and in turn act as a role of a persuader to other jury members of contrasting or similar personalities. Depending upon the perceiver and their character they will be persuaded or not persuaded. Socio-emotional vs. Task vs. Individual Roles Roles can also be divided into three types of interactions based on the communicating style of the individual group member. Socio-emotional roles are those in which the person is consider with the emotions of other group members and mediating them to achieve favorable or peaceful interactions in the group. I did not see a juror that was concerned with emotions to the extent this role would require to mediate other jurors emotions and thus keep the group cohesively working together. The meek man seems emotionally but he is not assertive enough to speak strongly and bind together the rest of the jurors into caring about other jurors emotions. Since the movie lacks a juror that clearly or even somewhat takes the task of the socio-emotional role, this may be why the group has a lot of conflict in reaching their unanimous, group decision. Task roles are those in which in the person is concerned with the task at hand and how it will be executed (and not emotions of individuals). Their job is to get the job done efficiently and well done. The foreman, juror 1, who sits at the front of the table, taking votes and mediating the procedures would be considered the juror most concerned with the task orientation of the group. For the most part, he speaks without emotion toward wither side and typically talks about proceeding with votes, and does not typically get into the emotion aspect of the trail. Socio-emotional roles and task roles are important for the group to achieve getting the job done and keeping individual members happy. Another role exists independently called the Individual role. This role may or may not occur in a group. The Individual role is the person who does not really care about other s but rather only themselves in the group. The baseball fan should be considered the person who follows the individual role. He does not seems to care about listening to facts about the defendant. He sees it the jury process as a waste of time when he could be doing something he enjoys, watching baseball. Group Norms Expectations Group norms are expectations or standards of activities and behaviors that should or should not occur in the group. The group expects to deliver an unanimous vote of guilty or not guilty to the defendant. Time of debate is a problem for this group. Some members expect an immediate decision, such as the baseball player who wants to get to his game, and others expect a more thought out decision. Since a sentencing of guilty would send the defendant to the electric chair, some jurors feel that a longer than immediate debate should be pursued. So, varying individual expectations of group norms creates a conflict of expectations for the group as to how it will proceed with finding the goal of the verdict. Every individual cannot be pleased as to how the proceedings will go, how long they will take, etc. We see this when jurors that want to get out of there, the court become frustrated because what they expect (leaving) is not quickly what they get (staying longer to discuss the case). Sociometry the Sociogram Sociometry is a measurement technique that summarizes graphically and mathematically patterns of intermeber relations. An example is the attraction or liking principle in groups. The sociogram is the graphical representation of the patterns of intermember relations created through sociometry. An example of this is a graphical representation of who likes whom within the jury in 12 Angry Men. It shows who is least liked to who is most liked. Also, cliches may occur, which are a group that likes each other the most and are more similar or share more homophily than the overall large group. The cliches are the blue collars as one cliche and the white collars as another cliche. They share a similarity of a working class bracket that is more similar in lifestyle to each other that helps them relate to one another which is considered homophily, than as a whole as jurors, to which they are more different from each other. Below is a depiction of what can be analyzed of a sociogram of this jury group: SOCIOGRAM Blue Collars like. Blue Collars White Collars.. like.. White Collars Reject. Meek Man(he is not liked by anyone and thus not listened to not influential) Most Respected (so maybe most liked). the old man. (some blue and some white collars like him) Social Influence: conformity Social influence is interpersonal processes that change the thoughts, feelings, or behaviors of another person. In the movie, 12 Angry Men, the jurors who think the defendant is guilty are trying to persuade or change the feelings of the jurors who think he is not guilty. They are using social influence to try and change their minds. To be more specific, we consider different types of social influence. These types include concepts about conformity, majority influence, and minority influence. Conformity is a change in behavior or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure. The first preliminary vote by the jury yields an 11 to 1 vote in favor of guilty. Why was this? Was this because most of the jury members thought he was guilty from the beginning, and people who were undecided felt they should vote guilty because of imagined group pressure? Most of the jurors when asked why they voted the way they did said; they were just sure he was guilty, or because the evidence points right to him. This may be true for some of the jurors, but most, perhaps unconsciously, felt pressure to conform to what others were saying. Juror number 8 is the one and only juror that voted not guilty. Henry Fonda plays juror number 8 in the movie. He is in his middle 30s, average size, short dark hair, and is an architect. Juror number 8 felt all the other jurors voted guilty without even thinking about their decisions, juror #8 suggested that they talk about it before jumping to conclusions. Even when some of the other jurors got mad and started yelling at him, he stayed calm and tried to work things out in a mature fashion. When asked if he thought the boy was guilty or not guilty, he said, I dont know. This shows that he had not decided one way or the other. When asked why he voted this way, he replied, Its not easy for me to raise my hand and send a boy off to die without talking about it first. This shows that he wanted to talk things over with the other jurors before he makes a decision. He wasnt going to conform to the group so easy. Social Influence: minority influence This is a case of a minority influence going up against the majority influence. Juror number 8 was not sure the boy was guilty, so he decided to go against the majority opinion, and thus not conform to group pressures. Juror number 8 is a minority among the jury. He wanted to go over the murder and all the evidence again before changing his vote. Most of the jurors said they just felt he was guilty based on the fact the a woman across the street said she saw the murder and the old man, who lived above the apartment that the murder took place, said he made it to the door just in time to see the murderer running down the stairs. Both witnesses identified the defendant as the murderer. Juror #8 brought up possible flaws in each of these as they were stated. For example, he questioned whether the woman could really see the murderer through a passing train in the middle of the night. Juror #8 didnt deny that the woman might have seen the murder and murderer, but thought it might be good to go back over the evidence and make sure they were sending the right man to death. Once the jury went around the table, juror #8 said he would change his vote to guilty if no one changed their vote to not guilty. There was one juror that changed his vote. Juror #9 changed his vote giving Juror #8 more time to talk about the case. Juror #9 said, He gambled for support and I gave it to him. I want to hear more. By convincing one person to change their vote, it forced everybody to listen to more arguments, and possibly change their thinking on the case. There means now there is some social support for juror #8. Social support is defined as emotional support, advice, guidance, and tangible assistance given to others when they experience stress, daily hassles, and more significant life crises. Obviously this was stressful situation and if he had no one back him up, juror #8 would probably fail in his attempt to influence the majority. Its a lot easier to try and influence a majority when you are not alone in the fight, there needs to be social support. Now that there is some social support, juror number 8 feels a little less pressure and is now able to continue with his argument. Juror #8 re-enacted scenes from the night of the murder in order to prove his points. The first time Juror #8 re-enacted a scene was when he proves that the old man could not have walked from his bedroom to the hallway in fifteen seconds. He did this by measuring how far his bedroom was from he hallway, and then walking it himself. It took him thirty-one seconds, making it impossible for the old man to have made it in fifteen, like he testified. By doing this re-enactment, he changed the minds of several other jurors. The minority influence had finally started to have success. Tactics for a successful minority To have success as a minority, as juror #8 appeared to have, a number of tactics must be used in order to influence a majority. These tactics include challenging the majority norm, having consistency, being patient, have rigidity, and bring about divergent thinking. First and foremost, the minority must challenge the majority opinion. If you dont stand up and challenge the majority you will never be heard. When juror #8 votes not guilty he has challenged the majority. The second step is to have a consistent message. In this case juror #8 says he is uncertain the defendant is guilty and wants to go over the evidence again, and hes not changing his vote until they do so. He wants the majority to convince him the defendants guilty. With consistency comes patience. The minority must give it time for their message to be heard and for any influence to occur. Juror #8 is going to stay and talk about the evidence as long as it takes. He is going to stay until the majority changes his mind, or until the minority changes their mind. The minority wants to be consistent and patient, but they want to avoid being rigid. You want to be firm, but you dont want to just say no to everything and be stubborn. You dont want to make yourself look like a jerk, because if you were perceived that way you probably wont have much influence. You want people to like you; this helps you persuade the majority. Juror #8 does an excellent job of not getting mad and staying calm even when the majority is yelling at him. He is a very likable, patient, and mature man and this really helps him influence the majority. Convergent thinking occurs when a person gathers facts, evidence, or experiences from a variety of sources to solve a problem. The result is one answer that hopefully is correct. Majorities seem to possess this kind of thinking, as is the case with 12 Angry Men. The majority members in the jury focused only on the testimony given by the witnesses. They did not consider any possible other alternatives. When it came to the witnesses, their testimonies were undoubtedly right and there was no reason to consider anything else about it. Divergent thinking occurs when we start with a problem and rather than look for one answer, we instead generate many ideas or possible solutions. The minority influence grew in support as the movie went on because members of the jury started to use divergent thinking when considering the trial. Instead of being focused on only one solution, they were considering other possibilities that could have explained what happened the night of the murder. When the jury considers the woman across the street that says she saw the boy kill his father, convergent thinkers assume everything is accurate in her testimony, because there is no other solution in their minds. What juror number 8 does is help the jury see another side to the story. Could the woman see the murder through a moving train at night when she was in bed? Convergent thinkers would say absolutely, while divergent thinkers would consider other possible scenarios. Juror #8 just wanted everyone to think about any other possibilities. In this case, the divergent thinkers noticed that she wore eyeglasses by the indentations on the sides of her nose. They then think about the fact that most people dont go to sleep with their glasses on. So they wonder how the woman could have accurately seen the murder and murderer. Maybe she did see the murder perfectly, but now there is some reasonable doubt.

Developing Outcomes Based Policy for Education

Developing Outcomes Based Policy for Education Since 1994, South Africa has experienced the policy cycle in a fast-forward mode due to the transition phase from the apartheid era. As a result, policy design, legislation and policy implementation have proceeded rapidly in all sectors. This transition meant that many of the policies that were inherited from the apartheid era were inappropriate for the democratic dispensation. To this effect Roux (2002:420) notes that constitutional reform has led to change and transformation in almost all spheres of government and administration. Such changes affected virtually all the functional fields of government, and consequently redefined the role of policy- and decision-makers. Echoing this sentiment Brynard (2005:3) states that an extraordinary degree of intellectual and political energy was harnessed to generate public policies that would suit the current needs of the State. South Africa, in a policy context, went through a major review of policies especially between 1995 and 1996; Brynard (2005:3) terms this period the White Paper Era. Brynard (2000:164-165) further states that after 1994, the democratic government embarked on an aggressive process of policy formulation with a view to remove discrimination in the governments public policy and statute. This continued until the end of 1990s. The second democratic government (1999 to 2004) shifted focus more towards implementation of policies of a democratically elected government, which still continues. The focus of this paper is on the performance of such policies. Goldfrank (1998:1) highlights the importance of looking beyond the euphoria that comes with the installation of new governments when assessing such governments performance. He contends that, in studying the relatively recently democratised countries, scholars have largely moved beyond the theme of transitions to democratically-elected governments and have begun to ask questions regarding the kind of democracies that have arisen and how to sustain democratic practices. Almost uniformly, political analysts and actors deplore the quality of the new democracies, pointing to one or another deficiency, including ineffective legislatures, inefficient public bureaucracies, corrupt judiciaries, and, perhaps most strikingly governments inability to deliver their mandates. Sanderson (2002:2) support this view when he points out that with increasing questioning and scrutiny of public intervention in economic and social spheres, governments are turning to evidence of performance for legitimacy since it is no longer guaranteed solely by democratic political processes. This paper argues that for the government to be able to provide evidence of performance of its policies, it must institutionalise an outcomes-based evaluation system. An Outcomes-based Policy Evaluation system is presented in this paper as a tool through which the government can objectively demonstrate achievements of its policies while at the same time accounting about the performance of its policies. However, for such a framework to be successful it must be embedded on a well crafted evidence based system. Thus, the researcher will argue that Evidence-based practice is a cornerstone for an outcomes-based policy performance system. Hence a saying that the system will only be as good as the data that it is based on holds true for this paper. In support of this exposition, Rosanbalm, Owen, Rosch and Harrison (2009:6) contend that evidence-based policy provides an effective mechanism to establish, in a scientifically valid way, what works or does not work, and for whom it works or does not work. With this structured approach to evaluation, knowledge can be used to improve practice, allowing successful programs to develop iteratively over time. Without this approach, interventions go in and out of practice, little is learned about what works, and the effectiveness of social programs does not advance significantly over time. Rigorous evaluation can end the spinning of wheels and bring rapid progress to social policy as it has to the field of medicine. This paper, though critical of the emerging policy evaluation framework in SA, it acknowledges the efforts made in the policy arena since 1994. Further, in identifying challenges, this paper seeks to take a forward-looking approach that would outline the issues which government must grapple with in order to develop an outcomes based policy evaluation framework. Research Problem After fifteen years of policy implementation, questions on whether or not such policies are delivering the intended outcomes are continuously being raised by different stakeholders including the government and the ruling party, African National Congress (ANC). For instance, since its landmark victory in 1994, the ANC government has introduced several policies with the aim of improving the living conditions of the South Africans. Now the dilemma that is facing the ruling party is its inability to objectively determine the extent to which the implemented policies are adding value to the lives of the previously disadvantaged communities. The ANC has reiterated this concern in its Strategy and Tactics document of 2002 where it argues that, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦policy leadership responsibility is compromised by the general absence of reliable and appropriate information that will evaluate policy performance and the impact of government policy decisions. Where there is information available it i s compiled and communicated by those responsible for implementation, which raises the question as to the reliability and validity of the evidence that is being presented to the Executive, Parliament and the ruling party. This suggests that performance measurement systems in government require serious rethinking. The biggest challenge is that most performance measurement systems in government are still input-based and, at the most, report on outputs without justifying input-output ratio (Sangweni 2006:6). Schacter (1993:1) is very accurate in his diagnosis of the problem when he contends that public sector performance has often been measured in terms of what the government has done, meaning an amount of funding provided, number of kilometers of road tarred, number of new hospital beds and so forth. Such measures focus on how busy the government has been rather than on what it has achieved. They highlight means rather than ends. Schacter (1993:2) further argues that this is not to say that keeping track of means, as opposed to ends isnt important. Governments need to measure how much they spend and do. But when performance measurement focuses too heavily or exclusively on how much is spent -inputs or done outputs as opposed to impact on society outcomes the result is often that public sector organisations lose sight of why they were created in the first place. Public organisations may be very busy but be accomplishing little from societys perspective. For example, it would be futile for the Department of Transport to build thousands of kilometers of roads to places where no one travels. The danger of this approach, as noted by Radebe and Pierre (2007:110) is that organisations take their own implementation decisions which may not be in line with national priorities. One of the consequences of the apparent absence of strategic leadership was pointed out as inappropriate infrastructure developments such a s building new parking facilities at Durban International Airport while the airport would be decommissioned in 2009. The purpose of the Study and Research Questions The purpose of this study is to explore the extent to which Evidence based and Results based management approaches are being applied in SA in the area of public policy with an aim of improving policy performance feedback (performance information or evidence of whether policies are successful or not). In order to achieve this purpose the researcher will be guided by two main research questions. The first question to be addressed is: Why does the increased attention to outcomes and accountability intersect with the growing demand for evidence-based policies and programs? In other words, how does the advancement of connections between science (evidence-based policy making approach) and policy making improve policy evaluation? The researcher will contend that a government that basis its policy decisions on scientific evidence enhances its chances not only of implementing sound policies but also of executing effective performance evaluation of its policies. According to Lasswell (quoted b y Hoppe 1999:1), policy science is about the production and application of knowledge of and in policy. Policymakers, who desire to successfully tackle problems on the political agenda, should be able to mobilise the best available knowledge. This requires high quality knowledge in policy. Policymakers and, in a democracy, citizens, also need to know how policy processes really evolve. This demands precise knowledge of policy. There is an obvious link between the two: the more and better knowledge of policy, the easier it is to mobilise knowledge in policy. Hartig, DePinto, Stone and McIntyre (2003:1) observed that informing public policy with sound science has long been recognized as a vital need for effective policy management However, delivering scientific findings to policy-makers in a useful manner has been problematic. Policy-makers have often lacked timely access to scientific information. And when they do have access, this information is often too technical and needs interpretation to be truly useful for decision-making. Clearly, there is a need to strengthen science-policy linkages in order to improve policy performance. The second question to be addressed is: what strides have been made by SA towards an outcomes-based policy performance evaluation framework Where are we and what are the gaps? To this end, Scott (2006:87) argues that South African government need to be able to determine whether government policies, interpreted into government programmes and projects, are causally linked to policy outcomes. We need to be able to determine whether progress, or lack of it, is due to (or happening despite) government policies and activities. Thus this paper will carefully examine the extent to which the South African government is able to objectively report on the performance of its policy interventions and also whether policy evaluation data is utilised to improve future policy interventions. Objectives of the Study This paper has three main objectives: Firstly, the study aims to examine the extent to which departments apply the Government-wide Policy Framework on Monitoring and Evaluation which was published by government in 2007; this is an overarching policy framework that ushers a new culture on monitoring and evaluation and is predicated on a RBM approach (The Presidency 2007:1). Secondly, the study aims to assess the manner in which government departments generate and use evidence throughout the policy lifecycle (policy formulation, policy implementation and policy closure or redesign). Thirdly, the study aims to assess the impact of the existing accountability mechanisms on the utilisation of scientifically generated evidence in government. Theoretical Framework This paper employs a dynamic analysis approach of the systems theory as a basis for understanding the interrelationship between policy making and policy evaluation. Dynamic analysis examines interdependent effects among variables over time, with time lags on effects and feedback loops as part of the analysis. Dynamic analysis differs significantly from static analysis which assumes unidirectional relationships between the independent and dependent variables in the analysis. While static analysis assumes that a change in some independent variables will result in change in one or more dependent variables, dynamic analysis introduces two-way relationship or feedback loops into the system of relationships being investigated (that is, in the two-way relationship, a change in one variable affects the second, which in turn affects the first changes in both variables continue until equilibrium or system collapse occurs (Melcher A and Melcher B, 1980:235-239). Thus this paper moves from the premise that if policies are based on tested theories (theories that have been subjected to vigorous scientific procedures); examination of their performance during and after implementation is made easy. Subsequently, evidence of whether policies work or not will be feedback to the initial phase of policy formulation for policy redesign where necessary. This is premised on the fact that public policies are not eternal truths but rather hypotheses subject to alteration and to devising of new and better ones until these in turn are proved unsatisfactory (Wildavsky 1979:16). To this end, this paper ventures into assessing which procedures are in place in SA and which processes, according to literature, ought to be in place in order for government to be able to account to its citizens on the implementation of public policies. Literature is very rich on how governments ability to account on the implementation of public policies can be improved. The focus of study is limited to two interventions. They are Evidence-Based Policy Making and Results-Based Management approaches. Evidence-Based Policy Making approach finds its expression through policy science which can be summarised as the intersection between scientific research and public policy. Davies as cited by Segone (2004:27) defines evidence-based policy as an approach which helps people make well informed decisions about policies, programmes and projects by putting the best available evidence at the heart of policy development and implementation. Segone (2004:27) points out that this definition matches that of the UN in the MDG guide where it is stated that Evidence-based policy making refers to a policy process that helps planners make better-informed decisions by putting the best available evidence at the centre of the policy process. Evidence may include information produced by integrated monitoring and evaluation systems, academic research, historical experience and good practice information. This approach stands in contrast to opinion-based policy, which relies heavily on either the selective use of evidence (e.g. on single studies irrespective of quality) or on the untested views of individuals or groups, often inspired by ideological standpoints, prejudices, or speculative conjecture. Proponents of evidence-based policy and practice acknowledge that not all sources of evidence are sufficiently sound to form the basis of policy making. Much research and evaluation is flawed by unclear objectives; poor design; methodological weaknesses; inadequate statistical reporting and analysis; selective use of data; and, conclusions which are not supported by the data provided (Davies 2003:54). On the other hand, Results-Based Management (RBM) is defined as a management strategy aimed at achieving important changes in the way organisations operate, with improving performance in terms of results as the central orientation. RBM provides the management framework and tools for strategic planning, risk management, performance monitoring and evaluation. Its primary purpose is to improve efficiency and effectiveness through organisational learning, and secondly to fulfill accountability obligations through performance reporting. Key to its success is the involvement of stakeholders throughout the management lifecycle in defining realistic expected results, assessing risk, monitoring progress, reporting on performance and integrating lessons learned into management decisions (Meier 2003:6) Scott, Joubert and Anyogu (2006:11) concur with Meier when they contend that RBM is a management strategy or approach by which an organization ensures that its processes, products and services contribute to the achievement of clearly stated results. RBM provides a coherent framework for strategic planning and management by improving learning and accountability. It is also a broad management strategy aimed at achieving important changes in the way agencies operate, with improving performance and achieving results as the central orientation, by defining realistic expected results, monitoring progress towards the achievement of expected results, integrating lessons learned into management decisions and reporting on performance. Key RBM concepts central to this paper include; theory of change, causal chain, programme theory and logic model. According to Bickman (1987:2) program theory can be defined as a plausible and sensible model of how a program [policy] is supposed to work. A good program theory logically and reasonably links program activities to one or more outcomes for participants. Program theories can often be captured in a series of if-then statements IF something is done to, with, or for program participants, THEN theoretically something will change. Figure 1 below illustrates how a program theory can be captured in a logframe. On the other hand logic model is a tool for illustrating an underlying program theory. A logic model illustrates the linkages between program components and outcomes (Wilder Research Center1987:2-4). It is this theory that must be backed-up by sound evidence as discussed in chapter 2. Figure 2 below illustrates how a logic model can be captured. ACTIVITIES OUTPUTS RESULTS IMPACT Research, monitoring, analysis of information Dissemination of information to health workers and population Informed Stakeholders Population assumes responsibility to protect, maintain, improve its health Improved general health. Reduced variances between segments of the population. Research Design This is a qualitative research which is located within the evaluation field of study. A qualitative research methodology has been chosen because of its approach towards finding the truth which bodes very well with the requirements of this study. Qualitative methods draw up an interpretive paradigm where there are multiple truths regarding the social world. In qualitative methods knowledge gathering is always partial, and the researcher is encouraged to be on the same plane as the researched in an effort to promote a co-construction of meaning Try to link this statement to your study to make what you are saying clearer to the reader. (Hesse-Biber and Leavey 2006:320). The researcher will use literature review to achieve three objectives. Firstly, this paper will examine literature on the application of evidence-based and RBM approaches throughout the policy lifecycle in order to construct a framework of analysis for the study. Secondly, the paper will identify critical variables that may help government to institutionalise an outcomes-based policy evaluation framework. Thirdly, the paper will examine strides that have been made by the SA government towards an outcomes based policy evaluation framework. Comparative views on the achievement of other developing and developed countries will be included in this study in order to augment theoretical exposition of this study with empirical evidence. The literature review will further be augmented with empirical findings arising from the semi-structured interviews. The interviews will be carried out with a sample of respondents from government whose jobs functions entail research, policy analysis and evaluation. The nature of the study requires (experts focused input) that the sample be stratified; as a result the paper will use a non-probability sampling technique (judgmental sample). With regard to data analysis, the researcher will use content analysis method which has been credited for its versatility to both quantitative and qualitative research enquiries. For instance, Creswell (2003:289) contends that content analysis has historically been conducted quantitatively; however, now there is a rich tradition of qualitative content analysis. The primary difference in these two broad applications is in research design. Quantitative approaches to content analysis are largely deductive and follow a linear model of research design. Qualitative approaches are mainly inductive and follow what is termed a spiral model of research design. When using a linear design the researcher has a preconceived set of steps to follow in a linear (vertical) path through each phase of the research process. A spiral design, employed by qualitative researchers, allows the investigator to, metaphorically, drive in and out of the data. In this model a researcher generates new understandings , with varied levels of specificity (Hesse, et al 2003:289). This paper will employ the spiral model together with the memo writing approach in analysing the findings. By writing memos one can raise a code to the level of a category. The idea of a grounded theory approach is to read carefully through the data and to uncover the major categories and concepts and ultimately the properties of these categories and their interrelationships. Memo writing is an integral part of the grounded theory process and assists the researcher in elaborating on their ideas regarding their data and code categories. Reading through and sorting memos can also aid the researcher in integrating his or her ideas and may even serve to bring up new ideas and relationships within the data. (Hess, et al 2003:349) As the process of analysis continues the researcher may begin to see more developed codes focused codes especially through the process of writing memos. Coding is a central part of a grounded theory approach and involves extracting meaning from non-numerical data such as text and multimedia such as audio and video. Coding is the analysis strategy many qualitative researchers employ in order to help them locate key themes, patterns, ideas, and concepts that may exist within their data (Hesse, et al: 2003, 349). To conclude, Karp (2003:356) notes that after pondering the ideas in the memos and coding interviews when you think you have been able to grab onto a theme it is time to begin what he term data memo. By this he means a memo that integrates the theme with data and any available literature that fits; something that begins to look like a paper. Importance of the Study Even though the focus of this paper is on performance evaluation, it ultimately addresses a very critical issue of an accountable government. Thus the researcher will also argue that a performance evaluation system should enable the government to account to its citizens about the effective and efficient use of their resources. This paper will thus contribute to the growing body of knowledge of policy making and performance evaluation in the South African literature, which aims at strengthening the accountability mechanisms of government. Summary of Literature Review The second chapter of this study focuses on the evolution of the policy analysis with specific focus on policy making and evaluation as well as on the progress made by SA towards an outcomes-based policy evaluation framework. A brief outline of some of the sections covered in the literature is provided below: Role of theories in policy making While policy could be defined in several ways, the point of departure for this paper is that policy is viewed as a theory. The proposition of this paper is that theories that underlie policies must be backed up by scientific evidence so that measures of success for policy performance will be effective. This proposition is backed up by scholars such as Pressman and Wildavsky (1973, 1979), Bardach (1977) and more recently by Pawson (2002). For instance, Pressman and Wildavsky (1973) described any policy as a hypothesis containing initial conditions and predicted consequences. That is, the typical reasoning of the policy-maker is along the lines of if x is done at time t(1) then y will result at time t(2). Hill (1998) concludes that thus every policy incorporates a theory of cause and effect (normally unstated in practice) and, if the policy fails, it may be the underlying theory that is at fault rather than the execution of the policy. Role of Evidence in Policy Making Evidence Based Policy Making (EBPM) Approach As stated above, the proposition of this paper is that theories that underlie policies must be backed up by scientific evidence so that measures of success for policy performance will be effective. This view is supported by scholars such as Gray (1997), Davies (1999, 2003), Nutley (2003) and Segone (2004). Arguments presented by these scholars are discussed in detail in chapter two, which is the literature review chapter. These scholars concur that evidence-based decision making draws heavily upon the findings of scientific research, including social scientific research that has been gathered and critically appraised according to explicit and sound principles of scientific inquiry. Framework for an accountable and learning Government Recently, we have observed a growing interest in performance measurement or evaluation in the public sector. The question is, what drives this interest in performance measurement and evaluation, in the public sector? In answering this question Schacter (2002:5) argues that the fundamental reason why performance measurement matters to us is that it makes accountability possible, and accountability goes to the heart of our system of political governance. Schacter further contends that citizens grant their governments a high degree of control over their lives. Citizens allow governments to take part of their income through taxes for instance, and to limit their freedom through enforcement of laws and regulations. In return citizens expect their governments to be accountable to them for the ways in which they exercise power. Performance evaluation is not only beneficial to citizens but to government as well. A government that utilises findings on the performance of its policies is able to improve on new policies as well as on the implementation of such policies. Wildavsky (1984:255) echoes this point when he contends that learning evaluation strives to unearth faulty assumptions, reshape misshapen policy designs, and continuously refine goals in light of new information derived during implementation. Previous research on Policy Making and Evaluation in South Africa Literature reviewed indicates that a significant amount of work has been done on policy making and evaluation in SA. Key topics covered in the reviewed literature include transition from apartheid to democratic era, Public policy making in a post-apartheid South Africa, policy evaluation, Electoral system and political accountability. These topics are addressed in chapter 2 where I discuss the work of scholars like Van Niekerk, Van Der Waldt and Jonker (2001) Roux (2002), Cloete and Wissink (2004), Scott (2006 and 2007), Radebe and Pierre (2007), Christo de Coning (2008), Gumede (2008), Carter (2008). Government reports, covering framework and performance documents, are also used in this study to present the side of government. Notwithstanding the existence of literature on policy making and evaluation, more work is still needed on how evidence-based approach improves policy performance as well as quality of performance data; this is the area this study seeks to address. Limitations of the Study This paper will not venture to quantifiably assess the extent to which the introduction of Evidence-Based Policy Making and Results-Based Management approaches have improved policy performance feedback in SA. Such an enquiry will require more time and a different strategy; this will be a subject for further research. Nevertheless, this paper will explore scholarly literature so as to identify main arguments on how policy evaluation could be improved. Themes emanating from the literature will then be tested through an interview with a sample of policy and evaluation practitioners. The other limitation of this paper is that, no matter how relevant it may be, it does not represent the official position of government. Hence there is no guarantee for the implementation of the recommendations of this paper. Finally, the timeframe as well as the financial resources will limit the researcher from doing an in-depth analysis of key variable of the study, i.e. the relationship between policy making and policy performance measurement approaches. Chapter Outline Abstract: presents an overview of the paper and introduces contents of each chapter. Introduction: presents a background to the study, the motivations for embarking on the proposed study as well as the purpose of the study are also presented. Chapter one: This chapter provides a reader with a methodology to be employed in search for the answers to the research questions. It also presents a brief summary of the theoretical framework which includes concepts and theories. Chapter two: looks into the literature that is already available on the evolution of the policy analysis with specific focus on policy making and evaluation. Key variables for an effective policy performance assessment framework will also be identified in this chapter Chapter three: examines strides that have been made by the government towards an ideal (evidence-outcomes based framework as espoused in chapter two) policy performance evaluation framework Chapter four: provides analysis and interpretation of the research findings based on the reviewed literature and interview outcomes. The purpose of this chapter is to present solid descriptive data and to lead the reader to understand the meaning of the phenomenon that is being studied. Content analysis approach and memo writing approach are utilised to analyse and interpret the findings of the study. Chapter five: presents conclusions and recommendations that have been drawn from the reviewed literature, constructed theoretical framework, as well as the interview results. The chapter also proposes research areas requiring further research in the field of policy assessment. Conclusion In this paper the researcher intends to assess critical strides made by SA towards an outcome-based policy evaluation framework. The researcher will use evidence emanating from literature and interviews to highlight weaknesses in the SA public sector performance evaluation system.